What Makes a Document?

I believe all photographs qualify as documents, in that they are, in John Berger's words - 'a trace naturally left by something that has passed'. It is time and context that gives value to a photographic document. A photograph of a person standing in front of a plain wall might have little value to the world at large, but to that person's mother would be very precious. The meaning and importance of an image can change over time, when further events happen or come to light, as happened with Jose's balloon image.

I believe hindsight can also affect the meaning of an image.A group photograph of Jimmy saville with a group of schoolchildren might have made a mildly interesting tabloid picture at the time, but now, with hindsight, such images have a dark, sinister overtone. People's perception of an image has changed with new knowledge of the situation that was ongoing at the time, even though the image itself hasn't changed. What was happening at the time has not changed either, it's just that we now know about it, which shows such images in a different light.

How much we know of the circumstances of an image dictates to a large extent how useful it is as a document. A photograph can be attractive to look at, even when we don't know what it is we are looking at, however its usefulness as a document is impeded when supporting information (in the form of text, or additional images) is limited. Having no prior knowledge of Jose's photograph in Spain, I simply see two figures standing in front of a wall. The one on the left is evidently military, but I wouldn't neccessarily have guessed the one on the right is a religious figure, as the style of dress is unfamiliar to me. It is difficult to see with such a small image, but it appears that the military figure is smiling, and the religious figure is not. Is this significant? I enjoyed John Berger's example in his esssay 'Appearances' of the image of the smiling man and the horse. He recognises that with no contextual information, the viewer is forced to conjure their own interpretation of the scene. Would I look at Jose's image and see two friends? or would I see the man on the right fearful of his immediate future, and the man on the left relishing the thought of executing his prisoner?

Authenticity is another interesting facet to this debate. In Robert Fenton's famous photograph 'The Shadow of the Valley of Death', he had moved the cannonballs onto the road from elsewhere, presumably to dramatise the image. It is a staged photograph, however I believe that this doesn't make it less of a document, but that its documentary focus has shifted. The image still records a scene where fighting took place (but not as it turns out where the charge of the light brigade happened), and it still records the actual cannonballs used in the battle. Bearing these facts in mind, the photograph is a document. It is however documenting a slice of time not from the original battle, but from from the moment the image was being made. In effect I would treat it similar to an image taken of a battle re-enactment. On the sliding scale of value however, Fenton's would register more valuable due to its proximity time-wise to the actual event.

To sum up my thoughts of 'what makes a document?' - A photograph becomes a document the moment the shutter is pressed, but its documentary value is based on a flexible, fluid, sliding scale, which is influenced by context and time.

Kendall L. Walton - Transparent Pictures (Essay)

André Bazin, a film critic, said that ‘the photographic image is the object itself’. I don’t think that Bazin was actually saying that a person looking at a photograph lying on a table or mounted in a frame would think for one moment that they were looking at that actual object, but that you are seeing the object itself through the photograph, not a representation or depiction of the object.  Kendall L. Walton supports this viewpoint, and talks about photographic ‘transparency’, as if the photographic image is a window into the past.

In my opinion, which follows the lines of Walton, is that when you look at a photograph, what you are seeing captured on film or screen is the same reflection of light as your eye would have been exposed to had you personally been present at the scene. This is markedly different to even a hyper-realistic oil painting or drawing, which is still a product of the artist’s hand, not light. Even so, it is hard to disagree with Edward Steichen’s comment ‘Every photograph is a fake from start to finish’. Photographic images are usually bigger or smaller than their real life subject, they are sometimes monochrome, or with more saturated colour, elements in the frame may be out of focus, at odds with their real-life counterpart. The photographer has made a personal and artistic choice on what to include in the frame, and what to exclude.

In essence, photographs don’t fall neatly into either camp, however unlike hand-made pictures, their origin is in the basis of reality – real light did strike the subject, then reflect back into the camera’s lens and was recorded on the film or sensor, even though it is certainly manipulated on the way there, and also after the fact.

Work: Missions Héliographiques

Missions Héliographiques' was a 19th-century project initiated by Inspector General of Historical Monuments Prosper Mérimée in 1851 to photograph landmarks and monuments around France so that they could be restored. The intent was to supplement Monument Historique, a program Mérimée started in 1837 to classify, protect and restore French landmarks. The French rail network was still in its infancy and many of the commissioners had never visited the monuments in their care; photography promised a record of such sites that would be produced more quickly and accurately than the architectural drawings on which they had previously relied. Mérimée hired Edouard Baldus, Hippolyte Bayard, Gustave Le Gray, Henri Le Secq and Auguste Mestral to carry out the photography, with the aim that architect Eugène Viollet-le-Duc could eventually restore them. The five photographers were all members of the fledgling Société Héliographique, the first photographic society. Each was assigned a travel itinerary and detailed list of monuments.

Baldus was sent south and east to photograph the Palace of Fontainebleau, the medieval churches of Lyon and other towns in the Rhône Valley, and the Roman monuments of Provence, including the Pont du Gard, the triumphal arch at Orange, the Maison Carrée in Nîmes, and the amphitheater at Arles.

Gustave Le Gray, already recognized as a leading figure on both the technical and artistic fronts of French photography, was sent southwest, to the famed châteaux of the Loire Valley—Blois, Chambord, Amboise, and Chenonceaux, among others—to the small towns and Romanesque churches along the pilgrimage routes to Santiago de Compostela, and through the Dordogne. Le Gray traveled with Mestral and photographed sites on his old friend and protégé’s list, including the fortified town of Carcassonne (not yet “restored” by Viollet-le-Duc), Albi, Perpignan, Le Puy, Clermont-Ferrand, and other sites in south-central and central France. On occasion, the two worked hand-in-hand, for a few photographs are signed by both photographers.  

Henri Le Secq was sent north and east to the great Gothic cathedrals of Reims, Laon, Troyes, and Strasbourg, among others.

Hippolyte Bayard, the only one of the five to have worked with glass—rather than paper—negatives (and thus, the only one whose negatives no longer survive), was sent west to towns in Brittany and Normandy, including Caen, Bayeux, and Rouen.

An announcement of the project was made in La Lumière, the official organ of the Société Héliographique in its June 29th issue with the itineraries published soon afterwards. After the five photographers had completed their tasks in the summer and autumn of 1851, they returned to Paris with portfolios of prints and negatives. There was much fanfare upon their return, but the photos were immediately retrieved and locked in a drawer. Bayard’s glass negatives are yet to be found.

The Mission Heliographique was the first state-sponsored, photographic survey of architecture. Yet the visionary parent society, the Societe Heliographique, only survived for less than three years, from 1851-1853. The expedition’s failure as an artistic polemic to save architecture was perhaps – ironically – due to its success. According to Naomi Rosenblum, in “Documentation: Landscape and Architecture,” The photographers’ skill and artistry helped doom the project. The beautifully composed images of decaying buildings made them appear in a positive light, which did little to encourage the restoration work for which the Mission Heliographique had originally embarked. Many of the buildings whose images were taken by the five photographers no longer exist due to the urban renewal efforts of Napoleon III under the architectural supervision of Baron Georges-Eugène Haussmann.

References

Daniel, M. (2016). Mission Héliographique, 1851 | Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art. [online] The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Available at: http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/heli/hd_heli.htm [Accessed 7 Jul. 2016].

H, J. (2009). Mission Heliographique - The Patrimony of Paris in Photos. [online] Bearings. Available at: http://www.terrastories.com/bearings/mission-heliographique-the-patrimony-of-paris-in-photos [Accessed 7 Jul. 2016].

Wikipedia. (2016). Missions Héliographiques. [online] Available at: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missions_H%C3%A9liographiques [Accessed 7 Jul. 2016].

Roger Fenton - The Crimean War

Photographer: Roger Fenton (1819-1869)

Roger Fenton was a British photographer, and one of the first war photographers. His grandfather was a wealthy cotton manufacturer and banker, his father a banker and Member of Parliament. Fenton graduated from the University of Oxford in 1840 with a first class Bachelor of Arts degree. In 1841 he began reading law at University College, and qualified as a solicitor in 1847. During this time he also became interested in learning to be a painter, and may have briefly studied in Paris in the studio of Paul Delaroche. He registered as a copyist in the Louvre in 1844, and by 1847 had returned to London where he continued to study painting under the tutelage of the history painter Charles Lucy with whom he served on the board of the North London School of Drawing and Modelling. In 1849, 1850 and 1851 he exhibited paintings in the annual exhibitions of the Royal Academy.

Fenton was impressed with the photography he saw on display at the Great Exhibition in Hyde Park in 1851, and visited Paris to learn the wax paper calotype process, most likely from Gustav Le Gray. By 1852 he had had photographs exhibited in Britain, and had travelled to Kiev, Moscow and St. Petersburg, as well as photographing views and architecture around Britain. Fenton established the Photographic Society in 1853, which later became the Royal Photographic Society under the patronage of Prince Albert.

Work: Crimean War

It is likely that in autumn 1854, as the Crimean War grabbed the attention of the British public, that some powerful friends and patrons - among them Prince Albert and Duke of Newcastle, Secretary of State for War - urged Fenton to go to the Crimea to record the happenings. He arrived in Balaklava on the 8th of March, and remained there until the 22nd of June. It is thought the photographs were intended to offset the general unpopularity of the war with the public, converted into woodblocks and published in the Illustrated London News. For the project, Fenton took along a photographic assistant, a servant, and a large horse-drawn van of equipment.

Fenton was limited in his choice of motifs due to the photographic material of his time needing long exposures. He was only able to take pictures of stationary objects; indeed, it is remarkable that he was able to achieve what he did - over 300 photographs showing scenes of camp life, portraits of commanders and heroes, panoramas of sights of battles and carefully posed tableaux vivants – the beginnings of a long tradition of ‘staged’ war images. His letters and diary reveal that he saw plenty of evidence of the horrors of war, although he chose not to photograph corpses due to the government’s will for Fenton’s photographs to counteract the negative reports of military mismanagement. Taking into account the concerns of Fenton’s royal patrons, coupled with the need to create images that would have some commercial potential, it is hardly surprising that he chose not to record the full horror of war. It is because he only took ‘positive’ images of the war, that some critics do not consider Fenton to be a true war photographer.

Fenton photographed the landscape, including a place near to where ‘The Charge of the Light Brigade’ took place. The soldiers of the battle had referred to the original valley as ‘The Valley of Death’ – Tennyson’s poem about the event had used the same phrase. Thomas Agnew put Fenton’s picture on show, and assigned it and expanded version of the epithet – ‘The Valley of the Shadow of Death’ – a deliberate evocation of Psalm 23.

Two images where taken in the aforementioned area, one with an empty road, and one which had cannonballs strewn across the same road. Opinions differ regarding which image was taken first, although there is evidence to suggest the picture with the empty road was first. It is suggested that either Fenton placed the cannonballs in the road to add dramatic impact to his image.

During the trip Fenton made 350 usable large format negatives after enduring high summer temperatures, breaking several ribs in a fall and suffering from cholera as well as becoming depressed at the carnage he witnessed at Sevastopol. 312 prints were soon on show in London and elsewhere in the country, and Fenton showed them to Queen Victoria and Prince Albert and also to Emperor Napoleon III in Paris. Nevertheless, sales were not as good as expected.

Undaunted by the lack of commercial success for his Crimean photographs, Fenton remained driven with great energy to perfect his art and to record meaningful and artistic images. He travelled widely over Britain to record landscapes and still life images, but as time moved on, photography was becoming more accessible. Many, with sufficient knowledge and also the hunger to develop business, sought to profit from selling quick portraits to common people. Fenton fell into conflict with many of his peers who were willing, as Fenton saw it, ‘to cheapen their art’ for profit.

In 1862 the organising committee for the International Exhibition in London announced its plans to place photography, not with the other fine arts as had been done in the Manchester Art Treasures Exhibition only five years earlier, but in the section reserved for machinery, tools and instruments - photography was considered a craft, for tradesmen. For Fenton and many of his colleagues, this was conclusive proof of photography's diminished status, and the pioneers drifted away. In 1863, Fenton sold his equipment and returned to the law as a barrister on the Northern Circuit.

Fenton died 8 August 1869 at his home in Potter's Bar, Hertfordshire after a week-long illness, at the age of 50.
  

References

Harding, C. (2012). Photographing Conflict: Roger Fenton And The Crimean War - National Media Museum. [online] National Media Museum. Available at: http://blog.nationalmediamuseum.org.uk/remembrance-day-part-1-photographing-war-fenton-crimean/ [Accessed 7 Jul. 2016].

Wikipedia. (2016). Roger Fenton. [online] Available at: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Fenton [Accessed 5 Jul. 2016].

Mohamed Bourouissa

Page 19 of the course materials briefly refers to Mohamed Bourouissa, an French Algerian photographer based in Paris. The course says that if the long held notion - '[documentary] is the result of a recording process, and not a product of the imagination' - is true, then Bourouissa is not a documentary photographer. This made me interested in how Bourouissa makes 'imaginative' documentary photographs, and set out to do some research. What follows is a brief description of some of his works, and a short response of my own.


Shoplifters - This series consists of portraits of thieves caught in the act in a Brooklyn grocery store. These photographs were taken by the shopkeepers at the time of the crime and then displayed in the store as a deterrent. By presenting these photographs to a wider public (they have never previously been seen outside New York), Mohamed Bourouissa is keen to highlight an illegal activity – the theft of food –, which is harshly dealt with by the economic system and the law.

This is interesting in that Bourouissa didn't plan or take the images himself, but thought of a concept and brought the images together in a collection.


The Hood - Bourouissa spent part of the year 2014 in the Northwest district of Philadelphia (USA). Over several months, he photographed the district’s equestrian community: ordinary street scenes and riders. Back in France he concocted an experimental silver print procedure allowing his black and white negatives to be printed onto the surfaces of car body parts. The works encompass two symbols of American culture: cars and horses, and echoes the reflections of urban life reflected in cars parked in the street.

This type of documentary photography certainly warrants imagination and creativity. Bourouissa has clearly trancended a simple recording process, where the printed product is also a part of the vision, rather than just a material to display an image.


Périphériques - This series of images attacks the clichés associated with the suburbs creating stagings that feign spontaneity and caricature the decisive moment of Cartier-Bresson. For some of the pictures, Bourouissa was inspired by paintings: 'in Red Square, for example, I relied on Flagellation of Christ by Piero della Francesca for image composition and arrangement of characters'.

'The series is a placement and organization of the tension in the space that is put forward. It depicts the suburbs as a conceptual object, artistic in situations that ordinarily would be the responsibility of photojournalism. By removing the cliches of this, I discusses the issue of balance of power and the question of the mechanics of power.'

It's difficult reading art-speak translated from French, but from what I can gather the images Périphériques were posed, in the style of the decisive moment. So in essence Bourouissa is documenting real people and places, but with an artistic spin which sees him place the characters, often following compositional concepts from paintings.


Temps Mort - Bourouissa asked a friend – known only as JC – detained in a French prison to share the banality of his confinement via an illegally smuggled cell phones pictures and over 300 SMS messages. JC and Bourouissa worked together over a period of 6 months. Initially Bourouissa had to instruct JC closely describing the shots he was looking for. Bourouissa broke down the boundary between the imprisoned JC and himself as a free man by filming repeated actions outside the walls on his own camera phone – at one point in the film JC’s steps on a jail corridor blur into Bourouissa’s steps through snow in the free world. Low-res imagery is associated with the spontaneous capture of event, with protest, with skirmish, with citizen documentation and more often than not with the testimony of the individual against the (violent) uncertainties of the State in which they exist.

A very interesting project, skirting legal and ethical boundaries. What I enjoyed most about this work was how Bourouissa channeled his vision through a third party - he wasn't able to be present at these scenes himself, but advised JC on the sort of images he wanted to create, and their composition. As I've seen with some other photographers, you don't have to physically press the shutter yourself to be the creative driving-force behind an image. 

References

 

Bahmed-Schwartz, S. (2016). Les allégories périurbaines de Mohamed Bourouissa | VICE | France. [online] VICE. Available at: https://www.vice.com/fr/read/les-allegories-periurbaines-de-mohamed-bourouissa [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Bourouissa, M. (2016). Temps Mort. [video] Available at: https://vimeo.com/63764961 [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Brook, P. (2016). Mohamed Bourouissa | Prison Photography. [online] Prisonphotography.org. Available at: https://prisonphotography.org/tag/mohamed-bourouissa/ [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Fund, A. (2016). Photographic prints from the 'Peripherique' series by Mohamed Bourouissa. [online] Art Fund. Available at: http://www.artfund.org/supporting-museums/art-weve-helped-buy/artwork/11174/photographic-prints-from-the-series [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Lespressesdureel.com. (2016). Mohamed Bourouissa: Temps Mort – Les presses du réel (book). [online] Available at: http://www.lespressesdureel.com/EN/ouvrage.php?id=3155&menu= [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Paris-art.com. (2016). Mohamed Bourouissa | P�riph�rique | Toulouse. Le Ch�teau d’Eau. [online] Available at: http://www.paris-art.com/agenda-culturel-paris/peripherique/bourouissa-mohamed/3611.html [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Seixas, F. (2015). <02.> Artists - Mohamed Bourouissa. [online] Biennaledelyon.com. Available at: http://www.biennaledelyon.com/uk/la-vie-moderne-home-eng/artists/mohamed-bourouissa-eng.html [Accessed 23 Jun. 2016].

Felice Beato - The Second Opium War

 

Photographer: Felice Beato (1832-1909)

Felice Beato  was an Italian-British photographer who was one of the first people to take photographs in East Asia, and one of the first war photographers. He is noted for his portraiture, depictions of people’s everyday life (genre art) and views and panoramas of Asia and the Mediterranean. His travels brought images of countries, people and events that were unfamiliar and remote back to people in the West. Beato created the first substantial body of photojournalistic work, capturing events such as the Indian Rebellion of 1857, and the Second Opium War. He influenced other photographers to a great extent, particularly in Japan where he taught and worked with other photographers and artists. He sometimes also worked with his brother, Antonio Beato, which for a long time caused confusion as to who created a particular image, as they shared a signature – Felice A. Beato.

Beato met the British photographer James Robertson in Malta in 1850, and accompanied him to Constantinople in 1851. In 1853 they began photographing together and formed a partnership called ‘Robertson & Beato’. They were joined by Beato’s brother Antonio on photographic expeditions to Malta in 1854 or 1856 and to Greece and Jerusalem in 1857. Several of the firm’s photographs produced in the 1850s are signed ‘Robertson, Beato and Co.’ – it is believed the ‘and Co.’ refers to Antonio.

Robertson became Felice Beato’s brother-in-law in 1855. The same year they travelled to Balaklava, Crimea, where they took over reportage of the Crimean War following Roger Fenton’s departure. Beato and Robertson’s approach differed to Fenton’s, in that they showed the destruction of the war, where Fenton had depicted the dignified aspects of war.
In 1858 Beato arrived in Calcutta and began travelling through Northern India to document the aftermath of the India Rebellion of 1857. During this time he produced possibly the first ever photographic images of corpses; it is believed he may have had skeletal remains disinterred and arranged for heightened drama in at least one of his images. Beato was joined in India for a year in 1858 by his brother Antonio, who later travelled to Egypt and set up a photographic studio in Thebes in 1862.

Beato documented the Second Opium War between 1860-1861, after which he returned to England. By 1863 Beato had moved to Yokahoma , Japan, joining Charles Wirgman.  In 1864 the two formed ‘Beato & Wirgman, Artists and Photographers’ which they maintained until 1867; it was one of the earliest and most important commercial studios in Japan.  Beato's Japanese photographs include portraits, genre works, landscapes, cityscapes, and a series of photographs documenting the scenery and sites along the Tōkaidō Road. During this period, foreign access to (and within) the country was greatly restricted by the Shogunate. Accompanying ambassadorial delegations and taking any other opportunities created by his personal popularity and close relationship with the British military, Beato reached areas of Japan where few westerners had ventured, and in addition to conventionally pleasing subjects sought sensational and macabre subject matter such as heads on display after decapitation. His images are remarkable not only for their quality, but also for their rarity as photographic views of Edo period Japan. Many of the photographs in Beato's albums were hand-coloured, a technique that in his studio successfully applied the refined skills of Japanese water-colourists and woodblock printmakers to European photography.

After ending his partnership with Wirgman, Beato attempted to retire from the work of a photographer, attempting other ventures and delegating photographic work to others within his studio. The other ventures failed, but Beato’s photographic skills and personal popularity meant he was easily able to return to work as a photographer.

In 1871 Beato served as official photographer with the United States naval expedition of Admiral Rodgers to Korea, making the earliest photographs of Korea whose provenance is clear. On 6th August 1873 Beato was appointed Consul General for Greece in Japan. In 1877 Beato sold most of his stock to the firm Stillfried & Andersen, and apparently retired from photography for some years, focusing on his parallel career as a financial speculator and trader. On 29 November 1884 he left Japan, ultimately landing in Port Said, Egypt. It was reported in a Japanese newspaper that he had lost all his money on the Yokohama silver exchange.

From 1884 to 1885 Beato was the official photographer of the expeditionary forces led by Baron (later Viscount) G.J. Wolseley to Khartoum, Sudan, in relief of General Charles Gordon.  Beato arrived in Burma probably in December 1886, after Upper Burma had been annexed by the British in late 1885, probably attracted by the news of the annexation after his experiences covering military operations in India and China. He arrived in Burma after the main military operations ended, but there followed an insurgency which lasted for the following decade. Beato photographed military operations as well as insurgency soldiers and prisoners.

Beato set up a photographic studio in Mandalay and, in 1894, a curiosa and antiques dealership, running both businesses separately and, according to records at the time, very successfully. His past experience and the credibility derived from his time in Japan brought him a large clientele of opulent locals, posing in traditional attire for official portraits. Other images, from Buddhas to landscapes and buildings, were sold from master albums in Burma and Europe. Beato’s photographs had come to represent the very image of Burma to the rest of the world, which it would remain for decades to come.

Although Beato was previously believed to have died in Rangoon or Mandalay in 1905 or 1906, his death certificate, discovered in 2009, indicates that he died on 29 January 1909 in Florence, Italy.

Work: The Second Opium War

In 1860 Beato left the partnership. He travelled from India to photograph the Anglo-French military expedition to China in the Second Opium War. He arrived in Hong Kong in March, and the images he took of the city and its surroundings under extreme wartime conditions are some of the earliest photographs taken in China. During his eight-month trek, Beato carried the cumbersome equipment needed for the albumen process: chemicals and large, fragile glass plates. While there, he met artist and correspondent for the Illustrated London News, Charles Wirgman. The two accompanied the Anglo-French forces travelling north to Talien Bay, then to Pehtang and the Taku Forts at the mouth of the Peiho, and on to Peking and Qingyi Yuan, the suburban Summer Palace. Wirgman’s (and others) illustrations for the Illustrated London News would often be derived from Beato’s photographs.

Beato’s photographs of the Second Opium War are the first to document a military campaign as it unfolded, doing so through a sequence of dated and related images, although the images were not always taken in order. His photographs of the Taku Forts form a narrative recreation of the battle: the approach to the forts, the effects of bombardments on the exterior walls and fortifications, and the bodies of dead Chinese soldiers within the forts. In contrast to his photographs of the conflict in India, Beato was able to capture battle scenes immediately after they occurred, rather than months later.

Just outside Peking, Beato took photographs of Quingyi Yuan (the Summer Palace), a private estate of the Emperor of China comprising palace pavilions, temples, a large artificial lake, and gardens. Beginning on 6th October, these buildings were plundered and looted by the Anglo-French forces, and torched by the British First Division on the 18th and 19th of October. Beato’s photographs taken between 6th and 18th October 1860 are unique recordings of the destroyed buildings. They appear to be the earliest images of Peking so far discovered, and are of the utmost historical and cultural importance.

Among the last photographs Beato took in China at this time were the signatories of the Convention of Peking, Lord Elgin and Prince Kung. Beato returned to England in October 1861, and during that winter he sold 400 of his photographs of India and China to Henry Hering, a London commercial portrait photographer.

References

Cabos, M. (2015). Felice Beato. [online] Photography of China – Pre-Mao, Mao & Post-Mao Era. Available at: http://photographyofchina.com/blog/felice-beato [Accessed 4 Jul. 2016].

Fisher, N. (2016). Photography in the Face of Adversity | the War Photographs of Felice Beato. [online] The Culture Trip. Available at: http://theculturetrip.com/europe/italy/articles/felice-beato-living-through-the-lens-of-war/ [Accessed 5 Jul. 2016].

Getty.edu. (2016). Felice Beato: A Photographer on the Eastern Road (Getty Center Exhibitions). [online] Available at: http://www.getty.edu/art/exhibitions/beato/ [Accessed 5 Jul. 2016].

Wikipedia. (2016). Felice Beato. [online] Available at: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felice_Beato [Accessed 4 Jul. 2016].